This table contains a repository of short case studies researched and developed by Dr. Elliot Short with the support of philanthropist Milton Lauenstein. These cases form an important part of the Better Evidence Project’s Resource Center as evidence that war and violence are not inevitable and can be prevented. In some cases, the prevention may only be short-term while in others the resulting peace has been sustained. To find resources and cases you are interested in, you can search by Country Name, Type of Conflict, Type of Peace Initiative, or Impact. The Table will automatically populate as you search.
You can expand the number of entries to view by toggling the Show entries box to the left and select the number of sources you would like to view. Each case is unique and is meant to provide information and additional sources that can help practitioners learn what worked in cases of war prevention.
War Prevention Case Studies
These cases were prepared by Dr. Elliot Short and are curated here by the Better Evidence Project team| Years | Country | Type of Conflict | Type of Initiative | Main Implementer | Impact | Summary | Learn More |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1989 - 1995 | El Salvador | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | An observer mission and a political mission | The UN. | Lasting | The United Nations Observer Group in El Salvador and the United Nations Mission in El Salvador verified the implementation of a ceasefire, contributed to stabilising the country, and strengthened the fragile institutions, preventing a conflict relapse in El Salvador | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-el-salvador/ |
| 1997-1998 | Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of Great Britain | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement | Local people and organisations and the governments of Ireland, the UK, and the USA. | Lasting | Negotiations mediated by the Government of USA resulted in the signing of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement/Belfast Agreement, which ended almost three decades of armed conflict and intercommunal violence in Northern Ireland. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-armed-conflict-in-the-uk-northern-ireland/ |
| 2003 | Democratic Republic of Congo | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | A peacekeeping mission | The EU and UN | Limited | Operation Artemis prevented a much larger conflict which could have contributed to a major famine from happening in Ituri, Democratic Republic of Congo, in 2003 | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-widespread-conflict-in-democratic-republic-of-congo-ituri/ |
| 1991 - 1998 | Somalia | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | Local action and peace infrastructure. | Local people and organisations. | Limited | Most of north-east Somalia was spared from the conflicts and famines of the 1990s thanks to the efforts of local people and organisations in Puntland to reduce armed conflict. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/bringing-stability-to-somalia/ |
| 1996 - 2000 | Central African Republic | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement and a peacekeeping mission | Regional governments and the UN | Limited | The conflict in the Central African Republic was stopped for four years by a diplomatic intervention by regional governments and the deployment of a monitoring mission followed by a UN peacekeeping mission | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/stopping-the-armed-conflict-in-the-central-african-republic-for-four-years/ |
| 1964 - Present | Cyprus | Risk of a Conflict Relapse, Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of an Interstate Conflict. | A peacekeeping mission | The UN. | Limited | The United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus has worked to keep the peace between the Turkish-held north and the rest of Cyprus since 1964. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/keeping-the-peace-on-cyprus/ |
| 2000 - 2019 | Belize, Guatemala | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy, an observation mission, and the mediation of a peace agreement | The Organisation of American States | Lasting | A diplomatic intervention by the Organisation of American States helped to prevent an interstate conflict between Belize and Guatemala in 1999-2000. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-interstate-conflict-between-belize-and-guatemala/ |
| 1986 - 1990 | Nicaragua | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | Mediation of a peace agreement and a peacekeeping mission | The governments of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua and the UN. | Lasting | A series of peace agreements mediated by regional governments and the deployment of the United Nations Observer Group in Central America helped to end the armed conflict in Nicaragua in 1990. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-nicaragua/ |
| 2011 - 2013 | Cambodia, Thailand | Risk of an Interstate Conflict. | Diplomacy, a monitoring mission, and the resolution of a militarised territorial dispute. | The International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). | Lasting | Regional diplomacy led by ASEAN and arbitration by the ICJ resolved the militarised territorial dispute between Cambodia and Thailand which threatened to escalate into a major interstate conflict following border clashes in 2011. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-dispute-between-cambodia-and-thailand/ |
| 1998 - 2002 | Uganda | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | Mediation of a peace agreement. | Local people and organisations supported by donors. | Lasting | The ongoing insurgency in northern Uganda was ended with a peace agreement | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-uganda-west-nile/ |
| 2000 - 2006 | Burundi | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement and a peacekeeping mission | The Government of South Africa, the UN, and the Organisation of African Unity/African Union. | Lasting | International mediation efforts led by South African President Nelson Mandela and the deployment of African Union and UN peacekeepers helped to end the war in Burundi after 13 years of armed conflict. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-burundi/ |
| 2003 | São Tomé and Príncipe | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Diplomacy and the mediation of a peace agreement | The governments of Nigeria, Portugal, South Africa, and the USA, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, and the Economic Community of Central African States. | Lasting | Constitutional order was peacefully restored in São Tomé and Príncipe thanks to the mediation efforts of a host of national governments and international organisations | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-sao-tome-and-principe/ |
| 1993 - Present | India | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | Mediation of a peace agreement, diplomacy, and stabilising international borders. | The governments of Bangladesh and India | Limited | The armed conflict in Tripura between the Indian government and Tripuri armed groups was ended by a series of negotiated settlements with several armed opposition groups and the stabilisation of the international border. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-india-tripura/ |
| 1990 - 1994 | Moldova | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Diplomacy | The Government of Moldova | Lasting | A second war in Moldova during the 1990s was prevented thanks to the negotiation of an effective political compromise with Gagauz leaders. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-moldova-gagauzia/ |
| 1995 | Croatia | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | Mediation of a peace agreement | The governments of Russia and the USA, and the EU and UN. | Lasting | The Contact Group (composed of Russia, EU, USA, and UN) successfully mediated the negotiation of the Basic Agreement on the Region of Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium, which ended the armed conflict in Croatia during the collapse of Yugoslavia. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-croatia/ |
| 1999 | Kosovo | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | Military intervention. | The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation | Lasting | A direct military intervention by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ended the armed conflict in Kosovo during the collapse of Yugoslavia. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-kosovo/ |
| 2000 - 2008 | Sierra Leone | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | A peacekeeping mission | The UN. | Lasting | The United Nations Mission to Sierra Leone disarmed over 70,000 combatants, oversaw a peaceful election, and helped to strengthen the Sierra Leonean state, preventing a conflict relapse. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-sierra-leone/ |
| 2007 - 2008 | Kenya | Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Local action, diplomacy, and the mediation of a peace agreement | Concerned Citizens for Peace (CCP), the African Union, and the UN. | Lasting | Electoral violence in Kenya was prevented from escalating into armed conflict by the efforts of local people and organisations and the African Union’s Panel of Eminent Personalities, which led the talks which produced the National Accord and Reconciliation Act | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-kenya/ |
| 1990 - Present | India | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement, local action, diplomacy, and stabilising international borders. | The governments of Bangladesh, Bhutan, and India | Limited | A gradual peace process has reduced the scale of the armed conflict in Assam while negotiations involving local people and organisations, several layers of the Indian government, and Assamese armed groups are being held. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-india-assam/ |
| 1996 - 2004 | Guatemala | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | A verification mission | The EU, Organisation of American States, and the UN | Lasting | The United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala ensured the ceasefire held and disarmed combatants, in addition to guaranteeing a relatively safe and secure environment for elections to take place alongside EU and Organisation of American States observers, preventing a conflict relapse in Guatemala. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-guatemala/ |
| 1997 - 2003 | Comoros | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement and an observer mission | The Organisation of African Unity, l’Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, the Government of France, and the Arab League | Lasting | The Organisation of African Unity-led diplomatic intervention helped to end the armed conflict in Comoros after several rounds of talks culminated with the creation of a federal Comorian state | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-comoros/ |
| 2011 - 2017 | Spain | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Other (Assisting a party to a conflict to disarm and disband). | The Dialogue Advisory Group (DAG) and other international NGOs. | Lasting | The work of international NGOs helped to end the conflict between the Government of Spain and the Basque separatist movement, ETA. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-spain/ |
| 2015 | Burkina Faso | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Diplomacy and the mediation of a peace agreement. | Local people and organisations, and the African Union | Lasting | Preventive diplomacy by the African Union and locally led mediation efforts helped to prevent a war in Burkina Faso following a military coup d’état. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-burkina-faso/ |
| 2011 - Present | Mali | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement and local action | The Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue and local people and organisations | Limited | The Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue has facilitated a series of successful peace processes between communities in Mali, helping them to negotiate peace agreements and build mechanisms to prevent further conflict | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-in-mali/ |
| 2008 - 2010 | Guinea | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Diplomacy and the mediation of a peace agreement | The African Union, Economic Community of West African States, and the UN. | Lasting | Thanks to timely diplomatic action by the African Union, Economic Community of West African States, and the UN, a violent political crisis in Guinea was prevented from escalating into armed conflict in 2009 | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-guinea/ |
| 1997 - 1998 | Albania | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | A Peacekeeping mission and a political mission | The Government of Italy, Multinational Protection Force, and the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. | Lasting | The Multinational Protection Force and the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe Presence in Albania helped to restore order, monitored the border with Kosovo, and mediated a peaceful end to an attempted coup d’état in 1998 | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-albania/ |
| 1999 - 2003 | Democratic Republic of Congo | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement; Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict. | Local action and peace infrastructure. | Local people and organisations | Limited | The city of Butembo and its population was spared from much of the fighting that took place across the Democratic Republic of Congo from 1999-2003 thanks to the efforts of local people and organisations. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/mitigating-the-impact-of-armed-conflict-in-democratic-republic-of-congo-butembo/ |
| 2015 - 2016 | Nigeria | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Peace infrastructure and mediation of a peace agreement | Local people and organisations and the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue. | Lasting | The efforts of local people and organisations, the local administration, and the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue helped to bring 29 communities affected by armed conflict together and create a peace agreement and an infrastructure to support and monitor implementation | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-nigeria-kaduna-state/ |
| 1993 - 1999 | North Macedonia | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Diplomacy, the mediation of a peace agreement, and a peacekeeping mission. | The Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe/ Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, EU, and the UN | Lasting | A timely diplomatic intervention by a range of international organisations and the deployment of a preventive peacekeeping mission helped the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to avoid armed conflict during the collapse of Yugoslavia in the 1990s | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-fyr-macedonia/ |
| 1991 - Present | Somalia | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of a Conflict Relapse, Risk of Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Local action, the mediation of a peace agreement, and peace infrastructure. | Local people and organisations | Lasting | Thanks to the efforts of local people and organisations, Somaliland has remained at peace for almost thirty years while much of the rest of Somalia was been plagued by conflict and famine | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-in-somalia-somaliland/ |
| 1999 - 2018 | Botswana, Namibia | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Resolution of a militarised territorial dispute and stabilising international borders | The International Court of Justice, the African Union, and the Government of Zimbabwe | Lasting | The territorial dispute between Botswana and Namibia, the result of an 1890 treaty between Germany and the UK, was peacefully resolved by the arbitration of the International Court of Justice in 1999 after a series of border clashes | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-disputes-between-botswana-and-namibia/ |
| 1989 - 1990 | Namibia | Risk of a Conflict Relapse, Risk of an Interstate Conflict | A peacekeeping mission and an international transitional administration. | The UN. | Lasting | The United Nations Transition Assistance Group helped to ensure that the withdrawal of South African troops and broader post-conflict transition of the newly independent Namibian state was peaceful. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/keeping-the-peace-and-building-stability-in-namibia/ |
| 2017 - 2018 | Lesotho | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | A peacekeeping mission | The African Union and the Southern African Development Community | Lasting | The Southern African Development Committee Preventive Mission in Lesotho helped to maintain stability during a period of severe political crisis in Lesotho, preventing an armed conflict from erupting in 2017. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-lesotho/ |
| 1999 - 2001 | Sierra Leone | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Military intervention and a peacekeeping mission | The Economic Community of West African States, the UN, and the British government. | Lasting | The war in Sierra Leone was ended and constitutional rule was re-established by a British military intervention in support of a UN peacekeeping mission after over a decade of conflict and devastation | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-sierra-leone/ |
| 1999 - 2007 | Honduras, Nicaragua | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy, an observer mission, and the resolution of a militarised territorial dispute | The Organisation of American States and the International Court of Justice | Lasting | The Organisation of American States helped to prevent a territorial dispute between Honduras and Nicaragua from escalating into armed conflict while the International Court of Justice investigated the case and resolved the dispute peacefully | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-dispute-between-honduras-and-nicaragua/ |
| 1992 | Russia | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Military intervention | The Government of Russia | Limited | The deployment of Russian forces ended the fighting in East Prigorodny after six days. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/containing-the-armed-conflict-in-russia-east-prigorodny/ |
| 1992 - 2001 | Qatar, Saudi Arabia | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy and the resolution of a militarised territorial dispute | The Government of Egypt | Lasting | The territorial dispute between Qatar and Saudi was resolved, preventing an interstate conflict from erupting over the contested territory | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-dispute-between-qatar-and-saudi-arabia/ |
| 2016 - Present | Nigeria | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of a Conflict Relapse, Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Peace Infrastructure | Nigerian state-level governments with donor support | Limited | The development of a peace infrastructure across the Middle Belt of Nigeria has helped to reduce armed conflict and prevent electoral violence. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-across-nigeria-middle-belt/ |
| 2018 | Djibouti, Eritrea | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy, the mediation of a peace agreement, stabilising borders, and the resolution of a militarised territorial dispute | The African Union, UN, and the Government of Saudi Arabia | Lasting | The militarised territorial dispute between Djibouti and Eritrea was prevented from escalating in 2017 by the timely diplomatic intervention of the African Union and was ultimately resolved after the Government of Saudi Arabia mediated a peace agreement | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-dispute-between-djibouti-and-eritrea/ |
| 1990 - 1994 | Chad | Interstate Conflict, Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Resolution of a militarised territorial dispute, a peacekeeping mission, and stabilising international borders | The Organisation of African Unity, the UN, and the International Court of Justice | Lasting | Following the International Court of Justice’s judgement of the dispute, the United Nations Aouzou Strip Observer Group monitored the withdrawal of Libyan troops from the area and helped ensure that the handover of the disputed territory to Chad went ahead peacefully. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-dispute-between-chad-and-libya/ |
| 2007 | Ethiopia, Somalia | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of an Interstate Conflict. | Local action, the mediation of a peace agreement, and stabilising borders | The UN and the governments of Portugal, USA, and USSR. | Lasting | The Government of Puntland ended the pervasive armed conflict on the Ethiopia/Somalia border, minimising the risk of an interstate conflict in future | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-on-the-ethiopia-somalia-border/ |
| 1993 -1997 | Niger | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement | The governments of Algeria, Burkina Faso, and France | Limited | The 1991-1997 Tuareg rebellion in Niger was ended by a series of peace agreements, heralding a decade of relative peace in the country | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-niger/ |
| 2015 | Nigeria | Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Diplomacy, mediation of a peace agreement, and peace infrastructure | The Government of Nigeria, the National Peace Committee, and the UN | Lasting | The National Peace Committee helped to guide Nigeria through its first peaceful elections in history amidst a tense a political climate, preventing an armed conflict | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-nigeria/ |
| 2002 - 2013 | Liberia & Sierra Leone | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | Legal prosecution. | The governments of Sierra Leone and Liberia and the UN. | Lasting | By removing powerful figures with a history of employing violence and armed conflict from the political environment, establishing a historical record of events leading up to and during the war, and bringing the perpetrators of war crimes to justice, a series of transitional justice mechanisms helped to prevent a conflict relapse in West Africa. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-west-africa-with-legal-prosecutions/ |
| 2001 - 2002 | Indonesia | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict. | Military intervention and the mediation a peace agreement | The Government of Indonesia | Lasting | The intercommunal violence in Central Sulawesi was ended by an Indonesian military deployment and the mediation of a peace agreement. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-indonesia-central-sulawesi/ |
| 1995 - Present | Bosnia and Herzegovina. | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | Legal prosecutions, a peacekeeping mission, and a monitoring mission | The European Community/European Union, Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, and the UN. | Lasting | The legal prosecution of political and military leaders who posed a threat to peace, the deployment of NATO and later EU peacekeepers, and the work of Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe and EU advisory and monitoring missions has helped to prevent a conflict relapse in Bosnia and Herzegovina. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-bosnia-and-herzegovina/ |
| 2005 - 2012 | Indonesia | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | A monitoring mission | The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the EU, and the governments of Norway and Switzerland. | Lasting | The International Monitoring Presence and the Aceh Monitoring Mission helped to prevent a conflict relapse in the Indonesian province of Aceh. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-indonesia-aceh/ |
| 1991 - Present | Western Sahara | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement, Risk of an Interstate Conflict | A peacekeeping mission, a monitoring mission, and an international transitional administration | The UN. | Limited | The United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara has helped to prevent renewed armed conflict in Western Sahara since 1991. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/containing-the-armed-conflict-in-western-sahara/ |
| 1994 - 1995 | Bosnia and Herzegovina | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvment | Mediation of a peace agreement | The Government of the USA | Lasting | The Government of the USA successfully mediated a series of peace agreements which ended the multifaceted armed conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the collapse of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-bosnia-and-herzegovina/ |
| 2002 - 2007 | Indonesia | Risk of a Conflict Relapse, Risk of Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict. | Military intervention, legal prosecution, peace infrastructure, and local action. | The Government of Indonesia, local people and organisations. | Lasting | Stability in Central Sulawesi was restored, ending the intercommunal conflict and preventing a conflict relapse. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-indonesia-central-sulawesi/ |
| 1953 - 1955 | North Korea, South Korea | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy and a monitoring mission | The Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission and the Military Armistice Committee | Limited | The Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission and the Military Armistice Committee helped to contain the armed conflict between North and South Korea for over four decades, playing a key role in implementing the terms of the 1953 Armistice and monitoring adherence to them by both signatories. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-renewed-interstate-conflict-on-the-korean-peninsula/ |
| 1991 - 2001 | Djibouti | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement and a peacekeeping mission | The Government of France | Lasting | A series of peace agreements mediated by the Government of France ended the armed conflict in Djibouti and French peacekeepers helped to verify implementation | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-djibouti/ |
| 2002 - Present | Ghana | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Peace infrastructure | The Government of Ghana, the UN Development Programme, and local people and organisations | Lasting | Armed conflict across Ghana has been reduced by the construction and maintenance of a comprehensive peace infrastructure | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-in-ghana/ |
| 2008 - 2009 | Democratic Republic of Congo | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | An observation mission, diplomacy, legal prosecution, and the mediation of a peace agreement | The UN and the governments of Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda. | Limited | The armed conflict between the Congress for the Defence of the People and the Government of the Democratic Republic of Congo in North Kivu was ended with a peace agreement following a UN investigation | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-democratic-republic-of-congo-north-kivu-cndp/ |
| 2015 - Present | South Sudan | Risk of a conflict relapse | Mediation of a peace agreement, a peacekeeping mission, and peace infrastructure. | The African Union, Catholic Church, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, and the governments of Ethiopia, Sudan, and Uganda | Lasting | The mediation efforts of a wide range of international actors and the protestations of the Pope helped to end the armed conflict in South Sudan in 2018. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-south-sudan/ |
| 1985 - 1991 | Guinea-Bissau, Senegal | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy and the resolution of a militarised territorial dispute | The Government of France and the International Court of Justice (ICJ) | Lasting | French diplomacy helped to prevent border clashes from escalating while the arbitration of the ICJ resolved the territorial dispute between the two countries | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-border-dispute-between-guinea-bissau-and-senegal/ |
| 2000 - 2009 | Russia | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Diplomacy | The Government of Russia | Limited | The diplomatic manoeuvrings of the Government of Russia ended the war in Chechnya after a decade of conflict. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-russia-chechnya/ |
| 1985 - Present | India | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement, Risk of a Conflict Relapse. | Mediation of a peace agreement, diplomacy, an observation mission, and stabilising international borders | The governments of Bangladesh and India | Limited | An ongoing peace process effectively contained the armed conflict in Nagaland for 14 years until a more comprehensive settlement was reached in 2015. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-india-nagaland/ |
| 2007 - 2017 | Côte d’Ivoire | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | A series of peacekeeping missions and a military intervention | The African Union, Economic Community of West African States, UN, and the Government of France | Lasting | A series of international peacekeeping missions helped to contain the conflict in Côte d'Ivoire until a French/UN 2011 military intervention definitively ended the conflict | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-cote-divoire/ |
| 1991 - 2008 | China, Russia | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Stabilising borders and resolving a militarised territorial dispute | The governments of China and Russia | Lasting | The long-standing border dispute between China and Russia (which almost sparked a war in the 1960s) was resolved, dramatically reducing the chance of an interstate conflict. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-disputes-between-china-and-russia-soviet-union/ |
| 2009 - 2014 | Madagascar | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Diplomacy and the mediation of a peace agreement | The African Union, l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, Southern African Development Community, and the UN | Lasting | A political crisis which verged on the brink of sparking a civil war in Madagascar was prevented from escalating by an effective international diplomatic intervention and the mediation of a peace agreement by the Southern African Development Community. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-madagascar/ |
| 2002 - Present | Horn of Africa | Risk of Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Peace infrastructure | The Intergovernmental Authority on Development | Limited | The Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism established by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development has used data, technology, and a decentralised network of people and organisations to build an effective early warning system that has demonstrably reduced armed conflict across the Horn of Africa | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-in-the-horn-of-africa-with-peace-infrastructure/ |
| 2012 - 2013 | Democratic Republic of Congo | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement, diplomacy, and a peacekeeping mission | The International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR), UN, and the governments of Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, and Uganda | Limited | The armed conflict in North Kivu between the Congolese government and the M23 armed group was ended by the deployment of a peacekeeping mission, regional diplomacy, and a peace agreement | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-democratic-republic-of-congo-north-kivu-m23/ |
| 1994 - 1996 | Ghana | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Military intervention and the mediation of a peace agreement | The Government of Ghana, local people and organisations. | Lasting | The Guinea Fowl War in the Northern Region of Ghana was ended by the deployment of troops and the mediation of a peace agreement. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-ghana-northern-region/ |
| 2008 - 2009 | Zimbabwe | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Diplomacy and the mediation of a peace agreement. | The African Union, Southern African Development Community, and the Government of South Africa. | Lasting | The diplomatic intervention of the Southern African Development Community and South African President Mbeki helped to avert an armed conflict in Zimbabwe following a contested election in 2008. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-zimbabwe/ |
| 1974 - Present | Israel, Syria | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | A peacekeeping mission | The UN | Limited | The United Nations Disengagement Observer Force has helped to prevent renewed war between Israel and Syria since 1974 | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-renewed-interstate-conflict-between-israel-and-syria/ |
| 1992 - 1994 | Mozambique | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | A peacekeeping mission. | The UN. | Lasting | The United Nations Operations in Mozambique helped to maintain peace and stability in extremely adverse conditions in post-war Mozambique. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-mozambique/ |
| 2012 - Present | Senegal | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | Mediation of a peace agreement | The Community of Sant’Egidio and the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue. | Limited | Although a final settlement to the conflict is yet to be negotiated, ongoing negotiations hosted by organisations such as the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue and the Community of Sant’Egidio have helped to strengthen a 2014 ceasefire and end the fighting in the Casamance region of Senegal. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-senegal-casamance/ |
| 2004-2019 | Haiti | Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | A peacekeeping mission | The UN | Lasting | The United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti helped to prevent armed conflict from erupting in Haiti in 2004 after a severe constitutional crisis. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-haiti/ |
| 1999 - 20001 | Solomon Islands | Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict. | Diplomacy, the mediation of a peace agreement, a monitoring mission, and peace infrastructure. | The Commonwealth and the governments of Australia and New Zealand. | Lasting | Negotiations facilitated by the Commonwealth and the Government of Australia combined with the deployment of an international monitoring mission and the creation of a peace infrastructure to prevent intercommunal violence from escalating into war in Solomon Islands in 2000. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-solomon-islands/ |
| 2001 - 2005 | (de jure) Papua New Guinea | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | A peacekeeping mission | The governments of Pacific states and the UN | Lasting | A series of international peacekeeping missions helped to ensure Bougainville did not relapse into conflict and created a stable and secure environment for the new administration to govern the region. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-papua-new-guinea-bougainville/ |
| 1949 - Present | Kashmir | Risk of an Interstate Conflict. | Diplomacy and a peacekeeping mission. | The UN and the Government of the Soviet Union. | Limited | The United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan has helped to prevent a major interstate war between India and Pakistan in Kashmir since 1949. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/containing-the-armed-conflict-in-kashmir/ |
| 1994 - 1996 | Guatemala | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvment | Mediation of a peace agreement | The UN | Lasting | Negotiations mediated by the UN resulted in the signing of the Accord for a Firm and Lasting Peace in 1996, ending the armed conflict in Guatemala after 36 years. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-guatemala/ |
| 1994 - 1999 | Angola | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement and a peacekeeping mission | The UN and the governments of Portugal, USA, and USSR | Limited | The fighting in Angola was significantly reduced for approximately five years thanks to the mediation efforts of the UN and the governments of Portugal and USA | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/stopping-the-armed-conflict-in-angola-for-five-years/ |
| 2014 - 2017 | Ethiopia, Kenya | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of Interstate Conflict | Local action, the mediation of a peace agreement, and stabilising borders | Local people and organisations | Limited | The 2005-2009 conflict between the Gabra and Borana communities on the Ethiopia/Kenya border was ended, stabilising the frontier, and reducing the likelihood of further conflict. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-between-communities-in-ethiopia-and-kenya/ |
| 1996 - 2002 | Croatia | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | A peacekeeping mission, a monitoring mission, and a transitional international administration. | The UN and the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. | Lasting | The United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation, United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka, and United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja, and Western Sirmium helped to prevent a conflict relapse in Croatia. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-croatia/ |
| 1995 - 1998 | Ecuador, Peru | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | An observation mission, diplomacy, and the resolution of a militarised territorial dispute | The Military Observer Mission for Ecuador and Peru and the Guarantors of the Rio de Janeiro Protocol | Lasting | A return to armed conflict on the volatile border was prevented and the territorial dispute that had caused so many wars over the centuries was resolved | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-dispute-between-ecuador-and-peru/ |
| 1992 - 1996 | Philippines | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement and peace infrastructure | The Organisation of Islamic Conference and the governments of Indonesia and Libya. | Limited | Negotiations mediated by the Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC) and the governments of Indonesia and Libya, and supported by an OIC Joint Ceasefire Commission, ended the armed conflict between the Government of the Philippines and the Moro National Liberation Front in 1996 | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-philipinnes-mindanao-mnlf/ |
| 2002 | Democratic Republic of Congo | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement, Interstate Conflict. | Diplomacy, the mediation of a peace agreement, and a peacekeeping mission. | The Government of South Africa and the UN | Limited | The Second Congo War (1998-2003) was ended by negotiations hosted by the South African government and the deployment of UN peacekeepers | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-democratic-republic-of-congo/ |
| 2014 – Present | Ukraine | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement, Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy and a monitoring mission | The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. | Limited | The armed conflict in Eastern Ukraine has been contained to the oblasts of Donetsk and Luhansk with help from the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, which deployed a monitoring mission to the region and has facilitated dialogue between the belligerents since the war began. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/containing-the-armed-conflict-in-ukraine/ |
| 1995 | Ecudaor, Peru | Interstate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement and an observation mission | The Guarantors of the Rio de Janeiro Protocol | Lasting | The mediation of four regional governments (the Guarantors of the Rio De Janeiro Protocol) led by Brazil ended the interstate conflict between Ecuador and Peru in 1995 after just over one month of fighting. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-interstate-conflict-between-ecuador-and-peru/ |
| 1987 - 1991 | Cambodia | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement | The UN and the governments of France, Thailand, and Indonesia. | Lasting | An October 1991 peace agreement formally ended the armed conflict in Cambodia after decades of devastation, war, and genocide. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-armed-conflict-in-cambodia/ |
| 1994 - 1999 | Republic of Congo | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Diplomacy and the mediation of a peace agreement. | The Government of Gabon | Limited | A series of peace agreements mediated by the Government of Gabon brought an end to the armed conflict that engulfed the Republic of Congo during the 1990s. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-the-republic-of-congo/ |
| 2006 | Democratic Republic of Congo | Risk of a Conflict Relapse, Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Armed Conflict, Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | A peacekeeping mission and local action. | The EU, UN, and the Congolese government | Lasting | An armed conflict was prevented during the 2006 general elections in the Democratic Republic of Congo thanks to the concerted efforts of local people and organisation, the Congolese administration, and donors such as the EU. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-democratic-republic-of-congo/ |
| 1986 - Present | Philippines | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement and a monitoring mission. | The Government of the Philippines. | Lasting | The peace process between the Government of the Philippines and the Cordillera People's Liberation Army that began in 1986 reached a formal peace agreement in 2011 which continues to be implemented with oversight from a monitoring committee. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-the-philippines-cordillera/ |
| 2013 - 2018 | Mozambique | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | Mediation of a peace agreement, local action, and a monitoring mission. | The Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, the Government of Switzerland, and local people and organisations. | Lasting | Talks mediated by the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue and the Government of Switzerland helped to prevent a conflict relapse in Mozambique more than two decades after the devastating civil war there had ended. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-mozambique-2013-2018/ |
| 2000 - 2018 | Eritrea, Ethiopia | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | A peacekeeping mission and the resolution of a militarised border dispute | The UN and the Permanent Court of Arbitration. | Lasting | The United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea helped to prevent renewed interstate conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia while the militarised territorial dispute that sparked the 1998-2000 war was eventually resolved by the work of the Independent Boundary Commission of the Permanent Court of Arbitration. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/keeping-the-peace-and-resolving-the-militarised-territorial-dispute-between-eritrea-and-ethiopia/ |
| 2001 - 2017 | Solomon Islands | Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | A monitoring mission and a peacekeeping mission. | The governments of Pacific states led by Australia and the Commonwealth. | Lasting | The International Peace Monitoring Team, Peace Monitoring Council, and Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands helped to prevent armed conflict in Solomon Islands after the unrest of 1999-2000 | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/keeping-the-peace-in-solomon-islands/ |
| 2008 | Georgia | Interstate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement and a monitoring mission | The EU. | Limited | Negotiations hosted by the EU ended the 2008 interstate conflict between Georgia and Russia in five days. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-between-georgia-and-russia/ |
| 2003 - 2006 | Guyana | Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Diplomacy, a monitoring mission, and peace infrastructure | The Carter Center, Commonwealth, Organisation of American States, and the UN | Lasting | The UN Social Cohesion Program and the deployment of international observers from a range of intergovernmental organisations helped to ensure that the 2006 elections in Guyana did not spark an armed conflict | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-guyana/ |
| 1978 - Present | Lebanon | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | Peacekeeping mission | The UN | Limited | UN Peacekeepers have helped maintain stability and contain or end several armed conflicts in Lebanon since 1978. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/maintaining-stability-and-containing-armed-conflict-in-lebanon/ |
| 1993- Present | Georgia | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | A peacekeeping mission and a monitoring mission. | The Confederation of Independent States, the EU, Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and the UN. | Limited | A series of international and regional peacekeeping missions have helped to contain the armed conflict in Abkhazia, preventing a conflict relapse that could have sparked much broader regional confrontations. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/containing-the-armed-conflict-in-georgia-abkhazia/ |
| 2004 - 2005 | Indonesia | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement. | The NGO Crisis Management Initiative | Lasting | Negotiations mediated by the Crisis Management Initiative resulted in the Helsinki Agreement, which brought an end to the armed conflict in the Indonesian province of Aceh | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-indonesia-aceh/ |
| 2011 - 2012 | Malawi | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Diplomacy and the mediation of a peace agreement | The UN. | Lasting | A timely diplomatic intervention by the UN helped to prevent an ongoing political crisis in Malawi from escalating into armed conflict in 2011. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-malawi/ |
| 1991 - 2003 | Iraq, Kuwait | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | A peacekeeping mission | The UN. | Lasting | UN peacekeepers helped to prevent further hostilities between Kuwait and Iraq after the First Gulf War. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-between-iraq-and-kuwait/ |
| 1994 – Present. | Azerbaijan (de jure) | Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy | The Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe/Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Minsk Group, and the Government of Russia | Limited | The armed conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, a territory claimed by both Armenia and Azerbaijan, has been contained since 1994 by the ongoing diplomatic efforts of the Minsk Group, preventing the eruption of a much larger confrontation | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/containing-the-armed-conflict-in-nagorno-karabakh/ |
| 2002 - 2004 | Indonesia | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict. | Military intervention and the mediation of a peace agreement | The Government of Indonesia | Lasting | The armed conflict in Maluku was ended by an Indonesian military operation and the mediation of a peace agreement. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-indonesia-maluku/ |
| 1986 - 2020 | India | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement. | The Government of India | Lasting | The armed conflicts in Mizoram, India, were ended after a lengthy negotiation process between armed groups and the Government of India. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-india-mizoram/ |
| 2002 - Present | Philippines | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement | The local NGO Balay Mindanaw. | Limited | Negotiations mediated by the local NGO Balay Mindanaw stopped the fighting between the Revolutionary Workers’ Party – Mindanao and the Government of Philippines in 2005 and ongoing efforts, although unable to produce a peace agreement, have prevented further conflict. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-philippines-revolutionary-workers-party-mindanao/ |
| 2018 - 2020 | South Sudan | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | Monitoring missions and the mediation of a peace agreement | The Intergovernmental Authority on Development | Lasting | The IGAD has successfully prevented a conflict relapse in South Sudan by employing a range of monitoring mechanisms and facilitating ongoing dialogue between former belligerents. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-south-sudan/ |
| 2017 - Present | The Gambia | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | Diplomacy | The African Union and the Economic Community of West African States. | Lasting | The deployment of an Economic Community of West African States peacekeeping force has helped The Gambia to prevent a constitutional crisis that from escalating into an armed conflict. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-the-gambia/ |
| 2008 - 2009 | Ghana | Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Military intervention, peace infrastructure, local action, and monitoring missions. | The Government of Ghana and local people and organisations. | Lasting | Ghanaian people and organisations worked alongside the government and security services to ensure that the 2008 elections did not spark an armed conflict in Ghana | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-ghana/ |
| 2012 - 2020 | Guinea-Bissau | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Diplomacy, a peacekeeping mission, and the mediation of a peace agreement | The Economic Community of West African States, EU, UN, and the Government of Guinea | Lasting | A diplomatic intervention led by Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the deployment of the ECOWAS Mission in Guinea-Bissau helped to prevent armed conflict in Guinea-Bissau in 2012 | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-guinea-bissau/ |
| 1994 -1997 | Nicaragua | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement and a verification mission | The Organisation of American States and the UN via the International Support and Verification Commission. | Lasting | The Frente Norte 3-80 insurgency was ended in Nicaragua by a peace agreement and its personnel were disarmed. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-nicaragua-fn-3-80/ |
| 1986 - Present | Philippines | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Local action and peace infrastructure. | Local people and organisations. | Limited | By creating and maintaining zones of peace, local people and organisations reduced the impact of armed conflict on the civilian population. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/mitigating-the-impact-of-armed-conflict-on-civilians-in-the-philippines/ |
| 1990 - 1993 | South Africa | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict; Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement and local action | Local civil society organisations | Lasting | The armed conflict between the African National Congress (ANC) and the Government of South Africa was ended and the risk of a larger war was minimised | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-south-africa/ |
| 1990 - 1996 | Mali | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement | The Government of Algeria and local people and organisations. | Limited | Mediation by the Government of Algeria resulted in a ceasefire, allowing local people and organisations in Mali to participate in a peace process which ended the Second Tuareg Rebellion in the early 1990s. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-mali-second-tuareg-rebellion/ |
| 1991 -1994 | Israel, Jordan | Risk of an Interstate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement | The UN and the governments of Israel, Jordan, and the USA. | Lasting | The mediation efforts of the Government of USA ended the state of war between Israel and Jordan that had existed for 46 years, greatly reducing the risk of further interstate conflict and stabilising the region. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-renewed-interstate-conflict-between-israel-and-jordan/ |
| 2016 | Nigeria | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement and peace infrastructure | Local people and organisations and the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue | Limited | Local people and organisations and the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue developed a peace declaration that ended the ongoing low-intensity armed conflicts between 56 communities in southern Plateau State, Nigeria | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-nigeria-southern-plateau-state/ |
| 1993 - 2020 | India | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict, Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement, diplomacy, and stabilising international borders. | The governments of Bangladesh, Bhutan, and India and the Assam regional administration. | Lasting | The armed conflict between Bodo armed groups and Indian security services in Assam was finally ended in 2020 after several attempts to find a negotiated settlement. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-india-bodoland/ |
| 2008 | Colombia, Ecuador | Risk of an Interstate Conflict. | Diplomacy | The Organisation of American States and the Rio Group. | Lasting | A war between Colombia and Ecuador, which was likely to have drawn in Venezuela as well, was avoided with the help of a diplomatic intervention from the Organisation of American States and the Rio Group. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-interstate-between-colombia-and-ecuador-and-venezuela/ |
| 1992- 1997 | Bangladesh | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement | The Government of Bangladesh | Lasting | The Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord brought an end to two decades of armed conflict and formally recognised the special status of the indigenous population. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-bangladesh/ |
| 2005 - 2006 | Nepal | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Local action and the mediation of a peace agreement | Local people and organisations and the UN. | Lasting | Nepalese political parties worked together with widespread public support to find a political solution to the ongoing armed conflict in Nepal and mediate the negotiation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, which brought an end to a decade of war and created the framework for a lasting peace. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-nepal/ |
| 2007 - 2011 | Nepal | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | Local action and a special political mission | Local people and organisations and the UN | Lasting | The United Nations Mission in Nepal worked with local people and organisations to ensure that the peace process stayed on track while facilitating the Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration and military integration process, preventing a conflict relapse in Nepal | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-nepal/ |
| 2006 - 2009 | Mali | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement | The Governments of Algeria and Libya, and local people and organisations. | Limited | Mediation by the governments of Algeria and Libya helped to establish a framework to end the Third Tuareg Rebellion in Mali, but the conflict itself was ended by talks hosted by local politicians. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-mali-kidal-region/ |
| 1989 - 1992 | Mozambique | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement | The Community of Sant’Egidio and the Government of Italy. | Lasting | Negotiations hosted by the Community of Sant’Egidio in Rome concluded with the signing of the General Peace Agreement, which ended the armed conflict in Mozambique after three decades of near-continuous war. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-mozambique/ |
| 2002 - 2011 | Sudan and South Sudan | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement; Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement. | The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD). | Limited | The 50-year conflict between northern and southern Sudan was ended by the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, which paved the way for South Sudanese independence. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-conflict-in-sudan-south-sudan/ |
| 2001 - 2018 | Iran - Azerbajian | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy and resolving a militarised territorial dispute | The governments of Caspian Sea littoral states | Lasting | An interstate conflict between Iran and Azerbaijan was prevented and the risk of war between any of the littoral states on the Caspian Sea was demonstrably reduced. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-the-caspian-sea/ |
| 2005 - Present | India | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement and stabilising borders | The Government of India | Lasting | The level of armed conflict taking place in the complex social and military environment of Manipur has been reduced thanks to a gradual peace process led by the Indian government | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-in-india-manipur/ |
| 1995 - 1998 | Yemen | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy and the resolution of a militarised territorial dispute | The Government of France, the UN, and the Permanent Court of Arbitration. | Lasting | The immediate threat of armed conflict was ended and the territorial dispute over the Hanish Islands was resolved by the Permanent Court of Arbitration | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-dispute-between-eritrea-and-yemen/ |
| 2014 - Present | Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Stabilising borders and a peacekeeping mission | The governments of Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia and the UN. | Lasting | Armed conflict has been reduced in the relatively unstable borderlands between Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia and bilateral relations have also improved | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-on-the-cote-divoire-liberia-border/ |
| 2014 - 2018 | Costa Rica, Nicaragua | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy and the resolution of a militarised territorial dispute | The Organisation of American States and the International Court of Justice | Lasting | A diplomatic intervention by the Organisation of American States prevented an armed conflict between Costa Rica and Nicaragua from erupting in 2010 and the International Court of Justice peacefully resolved the dispute in 2018 | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-dispute-between-costa-rica-and-nicaragua/ |
| 1995 - 1999 | Iraq | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement | The Government of the USA | Lasting | The Washington Agreement ended a four-year armed conflict between the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan in Iraqi Kurdistan during the 1990s. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-kurdish-civil-war-in-iraq/ |
| 2005 | Iran | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy | The EU3 (the governments of France, Germany, and the UK) and the P5+1 (UN Security Council plus German government). | Lasting | Ongoing international dialogue with the Government of Iran and the diplomatic initiatives of the EU3 and P5+1 helped to prevent the ongoing Iranian diplomatic crisis from escalating into an interstate armed conflict. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-an-interstate-conflict-during-the-diplomatic-crisis-with-iran/ |
| 2003 | Liberia | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | Mediation of a peace agreement. | The Economic Community of West African States and the International Contact Group on Liberia. | Lasting | After 14 years of armed conflict and instability, the war in Liberia was finally ended by the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement on 18 August 2003. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-liberia/ |
| 1993 - Present | Kenya | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | Peace infrastructure | Local people and organisations, the Wajir Peace and Development Committee, the Government of Kenya | Lasting | Conflict relapses in Wajir County were prevented and armed conflict in the area has been significantly reduced thanks to the maintenance of a peace infrastructure. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-kenya-wajir/ |
| 1991 - 2000 | Russia | Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Local Action | Local people and organisations | Lasting | Traditional methods of political organisation have helped prevent armed conflict in the Republic of Dagestan during the unrest and instability that has marked life in much of the Caucasus in the post-Soviet period. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-russia-dagestan/ |
| 2003 - 2014 | Philippines | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement, monitoring missions, and peace infrastructure. | The International Contact Group, the Organisation of Islamic Conference, the EU, and the Government of Norway. | Lasting | Lengthy negotiations mediated by the International Contact Group (composed of four governments and four NGOS), supported by international monitoring missions and local peace infrastructure, helped to end the armed conflict on Mindanao. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-philippines-mindanao-milf/ |
| 2016 - 2018 | Withheld | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Local action and peace infrastructure | Local people and organisations and the NGO Peace Direct | Limited | The construction of a local peace infrastructure in the country known as “Boendoe” helped to reduce violence in the area and minimised the risk of an armed conflict | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-in-boendoe/ |
| 2010 | Kyrgyzstan | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Local action and diplomacy. | Local people and organisations and the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. | Lasting | The measures taken by the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe and Kyrgyzstani people and organisations helped to prevent political crises and social unrest from escalating into armed conflict in 2010. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-kyrgyzstan/ |
| 1999 - 2000 | Timor-Leste | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | A military intervention. | The governments of Pacific states and the UN. | Lasting | A multilateral military intervention led by Australia brought an end to the armed conflict in Timor-Leste in 2000 after decades of instability and war. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-timor-leste/ |
| 2011 - Present | Sudan | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Local action | Peace Direct and the Collaborative for Peace Sudan. | Limited | Peace Committees created with support from the NGO Peace Direct conducted at least 32 successful interventions to prevent relatively minor disputes from escalating into armed conflict in South Kordofan, Sudan. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-in-sudan-south-kordofan/ |
| 2001 - Present | Kenya | Risk of a Conflict Relapse, Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Peace Infrastructure | The Government of Kenya, local people and organisations | Lasting | The development of an effective peace infrastructure helped to reduce armed conflict across Kenya and limit the risk of electoral violence | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-across-kenya/ |
| 2009 - 2010 | Niger | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement. | The Government of Libya | Lasting | The third Tuareg rebellion (2007-2009) in Niger was ended with a peace agreement mediated by the Government of Libya. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-niger-2/ |
| 1992 - 2008 | Georgia | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | Mediation of a peace agreement, a monitoring mission, and a peacekeeping mission. | The governments of Russia, Georgia, and South Ossetia. | Limited | The armed conflict in South Ossetia was contained between 1992 and 2008 by the deployment of a regional peacekeeping mission. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/containing-the-armed-conflict-in-georgia-south-ossetia-for-16-years/ |
| 1989 - 1994 | Suriname | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement and a monitoring mission | The Organisation of American States | Lasting | The mediation of a peace agreement and the deployment of a monitoring mission to verify implementation of its terms by the Organisation of American States ended the armed conflict in Suriname. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-suriname/ |
| 2000 - 20003 | Indonesia | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict. | Military intervention. | The Government of Indonesia, local people and organisations. | Lasting | The deployment of Indonesian security forces to North Maluku ended the intercommunal conflict and prevented further fighting. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-indonesia-north-maluku/ |
| 2017 - Present | Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement and stabilising international borders | The Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue and the governments of Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger | Limited | The Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue has worked with the governments of Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger to reduce armed conflict in the frontier region where their respective international borders meet | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-on-the-mali-niger-burkina-faso-international-border/ |
| 1994 - Present | Colombia | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Local action and an observation mission | Local people and organisations and the NGO Peace Brigades International. | Limited | Peace communities created by local people caught in the crossfire during the armed conflict in Colombia (and accompanied by Peace Brigades International since 1997) have helped to mitigate the impact of the fighting on civilians. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/mitigating-the-impact-of-armed-conflict-in-colombia/ |
| 2008 - 2011 | Djibouti, Eritrea | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement and a peacekeeping mission. | The Government of Qatar | Lasting | A low-intensity interstate conflict between Djibouti and Eritrea was prevented from escalating into a major war thanks to the mediation efforts of the Government of Qatar and the deployment of a Qatari peacekeeping mission. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-interstate-conflict-between-djibouti-and-eritrea/ |
| 1991-1993 | Cambodia | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | A peacekeeping mission and a transitional international administration | The UN. | Lasting | The United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia maintained peace and stability in post-conflict Cambodia until a national government was formed in 1993. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-cambodia/ |
| 1985 - 1991 | Russia | Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of an Interstate Conflict. | Diplomacy and monitoring missions | The Government of the Soviet Union, the European Community, Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. | Lasting | A potentially volatile collapse of the Soviet Union took place peacefully thanks to the measured response of the Soviet leadership and the presence of international mechanisms that prevented instability and uncertainty from escalating into armed conflict. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ensuring-that-the-collapse-of-the-soviet-union-remained-peaceful/ |
| 2013 - 2018 | Tunisia | Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Local action and the mediation of a peace agreement | The National Dialogue Quartet. | Lasting | The National Dialogue Quartet, a consortium of four major Tunisian civil society organisations, helped to prevent armed conflict and guide their country on a peaceful course in the wake of the 2011 Jasmine Revolution. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-tunisia/ |
| 1993 | Somalia | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict; Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement | Local people and organisations | Limited | The peace agreement ended the fighting in the central province of Mudug, reducing armed conflict in the area and allowing supplies to cross Somalia, mitigating the impact of other conflicts | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/stopping-the-armed-conflict-in-somalia-mudug/ |
| 2011 - Present | Sudan/South Sudan | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement and a peacekeeping mission | The Government of South Africa and the UN | Limited | A UN peacekeeping mission has helped to prevent renewed armed conflict in the contested area of Abyei for a decade | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/containing-the-armed-conflict-between-south-sudan-and-sudan-abyei/ |
| 2001 - 2002 | Angola | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvment | Mediation of a peace agreement | The Government of Angola | Lasting | An agreement negotiated by the belligerents ended the conflict in Angola. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-angola/ |
| 2001 | North Macedonia | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement, Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy, the mediation of a peace agreement, a peacekeeping mission, and peace infrastructure | The EU, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, and the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe | Lasting | Armed conflict was prevented once again in Macedonia in 2001, in this case by a diplomatic intervention by a range of intergovernmental organisations, the deployment of a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation peacekeeping mission, and the strengthening of existing peace infrastructure | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-fyr-macedonia-2001/ |
| 2016 - 2017 | Republic of Congo | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement. | The Government of Republic of Congo | Lasting | The ceasefire and cessation of hostilities agreements ended the Ninja insurgency in the Pool region, while a comprehensive Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration programme has helped to stabilise the area. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-republic-of-congo/ |
| 2006 - 2010 | Chad, Sudan | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement, Risk of an Interstate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement. | The governments of Senegal, Saudi Arabia, and Libya | Lasting | A peace agreement mediated by the Government of Senegal helped to end years of proxy conflict between the governments of Chad and Sudan and reduce the risk of a major interstate conflict between them. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-proxy-conflict-between-chad-and-sudan/ |
| 1993 | Kenya | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict. | Local action, the mediation of a peace agreement, and peace infrastructure. | The UN and the governments of Portugal, USA, and USSR. | Lasting | The armed conflict between clans in Wajir County, Kenya, was ended in 1993 | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-kenya-wajir/ |
| 1994 - 1997 | Tajikistan | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | A peacekeeping mission and the mediation of a peace agreement. | The Confederation of Independent States, Inter-Tajik Dialogue, Organisation of Islamic Conference, Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the UN, and regional governments. | Lasting | A series of multilateral peacekeeping and monitoring missions and the mediation efforts of the UN and the Inter-Tajik Dialogue helped to bring an end to the intrastate armed conflict in Tajikistan in 1997. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-tajikistan/ |
| 1998 - Present | France | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Mediation of a peace agreement and a monitoring mission | The Government of France and the UN | Lasting | A series of peace agreements mediated by the French government and the ongoing supervision of the UN Special Committee on Decolonisation has ensured that the debate over the future of New Caledonia has not escalated into armed conflict | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-france-new-caledonia/ |
| 1986 - 1992 | El Salvador | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvment | Mediation of a peace agreement | The UN | Lasting | After 12 years of devastating civil war, the armed conflict in El Salvador was finally ended after negotiations mediated by the UN culminated with the signing of the Chapultepec Peace Accords in 1992. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-el-salvador/ |
| 1992 - 1994 | South Africa | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Diplomacy and the mediation of a peace agreement | The Government of South Africa (Transitional Executive Council). | Lasting | The armed conflict between the ANC and Inkatha/IFP in the South African province of Natal during the end of apartheid was ended | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-south-africa-natal/ |
| 1992 - 1995 | Philippines | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement. | The Government of the Philippines. | Lasting | A peace agreement mediated by an agency of the Government of the Philippines ended the repeated efforts of the Soldiers of the Filipino People, the Young Officers’ Union, and the Revolutionary Nationalist Alliance factions of the military to seize power with force. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-the-philipinnes-soldiers/ |
| 2002 - 2008 | Comoros | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | Diplomacy, an observation mission, a military intervention, and the mediation of a peace agreement. | The Organisation of African Unity/African Union, the Government of France, and the Arab League. | Lasting | Ongoing negotiations and the deployment of Organisation of African Unity/African Union observer missions and a military operation helped to ensure that Comoros did not experience a conflict relapse. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-comoros/ |
| 1999 - 2012 | Timor-Leste | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | A peacekeeping mission and a transitional international administration. | The UN. | Lasting | A transitional international administration and a peacekeeping mission helped to prevent a conflict relapse in Timor-Leste and laid the foundations for an accountable state governed by a constitution and an elected government to be built. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-timor-leste/ |
| 2012 - 2016 | Colombia | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvment | Diplomacy and the mediation of a peace agreement | The governments of Cuba, Chile, Germany, Norway, USA, Vatican, and Venezuela, along with the EU, UN, and the Union of South American Nations. | Lasting | The armed conflict in Colombia was finally ended after 52 years by the signing of a peace agreement during negotiations mediated by a host of national governments and intergovernmental organisations. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-colombia/ |
| 1991 | Slovenia | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement, Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Mediation of a peace agreement and an observation mission | The European Community | Lasting | The mediation efforts of the European Community and the deployment of the European Community Monitoring Mission helped to end the armed conflict in Slovenia after ten days of fighting, preventing a much larger conflict | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-slovenia/ |
| 1997 | Albania | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Diplomacy, a peacekeeping mission, and a political mission. | The Government of Italy, Multinational Protection Force, Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and the EU | Lasting | The Multinational Protection Force, an Italian-led peacekeeping mission mandated by the UN to restore order in Albania in 1997, succeeded in ending the armed conflict and restoring stability to Albania following a severe political crisis | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-albania/ |
| 1998 - 1999 | Guinea-Bissau | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | Mediation of a peace agreement and a peacekeeping mission | The Community of Portuguese Language Countries (Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa, CPLP) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). | Limited | Mediation by the CPLP and ECOWAS helped to end the civil war in Guinea-Bissau. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-guinea-bissau/ |
| 1994 - Present | Mexico | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Monitoring Mission | An NGO supported by donors and local people and organizations | Limited | Although the conflict between the Zapatista movement and the Government of Mexico has not been resolved, the fighting has been effectively contained since 1997. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/containing-the-armed-conflict-in-mexico-chiapas/ |
| 1994 - 2006 | Cameroon, Nigeria | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy, resolution of a militarised territorial dispute, mediation of a peace agreement, and stabilising international borders | The UN, International Court of Justice, the Organisation of African Unity, and the governments of France, Gabon, and Togo | Lasting | A militarised territorial dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria was resolved by the International Court of Justice, the Organisation of African Unity, and the UN helped to ensure the peaceful withdrawal of Nigerian forces from the contested area. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-disputes-between-cameroon-and-nigeria/ |
| 2004 | Georgia | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict | Diplomacy | The governments of Georgia and Russia, local people and organisations. | Lasting | The diplomatic efforts of the Georgian and Russian governments helped prevent a war in the Autonomous Republic of Adjara. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-georgia-adjara/ |
| 2011 - 2021 | Ethiopia, Kenya | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Peace infrastructure and stabilising borders | Local people and organisations, the Ethiopian and Kenyan governments, and the EU, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, and UN. | Lasting | Armed conflict between communities living near the Ethiopia-Kenya border was reduced and the risk of interstate conflict was significantly reduced. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-armed-conflict-on-the-ethiopia-kenya-border/ |
| 1993 - 1997 | Estonia | Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement | Diplomacy, the mediation of a peace agreement, and a monitoring mission | The Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe/Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. | Lasting | A diplomatic intervention led by the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe helped to avert an armed conflict in Estonia following the collapse of the Soviet Union. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-estonia/ |
| 2011 - Present | Sudan, South Sudan | Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Monitoring mission, a peacekeeping mission, and stabilising borders. | The African Union (AU), UN, and the governments of Sudan and South Sudan. | Limited | South Sudan and Sudan have maintained relatively peaceful relations for a decade thanks to the mechanisms established following the 2011 referendum. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-an-interstate-conflict-between-south-sudan-and-sudan/ |
| 2017 - 2019 | Burundi, Tanzania | Risk of Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Stabilising borders | The UN | Limited | The UN has helped to manage conflict and instability along the international border between Burundi and Tanzania, reducing the likelihood of armed conflict between communities and minimising the risk of an interstate conflict | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/reducing-conflict-and-building-stability-on-the-burundi-tanzania-border/ |
| 1998 - Present | Somalia | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of a Conflict Relapse | Local action and peace infrastructure. | Local people and organisations | Limited | Puntland has enjoyed relative peace while conflict has continued across most of Somalia. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/keeping-the-peace-in-somalia-puntland/ |
| 1994 - 2001 | Papua New Guinea | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | A peacekeeping mission, a monitoring mission, and the mediation of a peace agreement. | The governments of Pacific states and the UN. | Lasting | The armed conflict in Bougainville was ended after a decade of fighting by the deployment of a series of regionally led peacekeeping missions and negotiations. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-papua-new-guinea-bougainville/ |
| 2013 - 2020 | Nigeria | Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Military intervention, peace infrastructure and the mediation of a peace agreement. | The Government of Nigeria and the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue. | Lasting | A military intervention by the Nigerian military helped to contain intercommunal violence in Plateau State until the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue mediated a peace agreement which ended the fighting and helped create a peace infrastructure to continue its work and prevent a conflict relapse. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-nigeria-plateau-state/ |
| 1991 - 2001 | Bahrain | Risk of an Interstate Conflict. | Diplomacy, mediation of a peace agreement, and the resolution of a militarised territorial dispute. | The Government of Saudi Arabia and the International Court of Justice. | Lasting | The longstanding militarised territorial dispute between Bahrain and Qatar regarding the Hawar Islands was prevented by the diplomatic intervention of the Government of Saudi Arabia and resolved by the International Court of Justice in 2001. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/resolving-the-militarised-territorial-dispute-between-bahrain-and-qatar/ |
| 1992 - 1994 | South Africa | Risk of a Conflict Relapse. | Local action and monitoring missions. | The Commonwealth, EU, Organisation of African Unity, and the UN, along with local people and organisations. | Lasting | The deployment of monitoring missions by the Commonwealth, EU, Organisation of African Unity, and the UN helped to prevent violence during the 1994 elections and ensured that South Africa did not experience a conflict relapse after the transition from apartheid. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-south-africa/ |
| 1998 - 2000 | Eritrea | Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy, the mediation of a peace agreement, and a peacekeeping mission. | The UN, the Organisation of African Unity, and the Government of Algeria. | Lasting | The war between Eritrea and Ethiopia was ended by mediation efforts led by the Organisation of African Unity during negotiations held in Algeria and the deployment of the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) to the region. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-interstate-conflict-between-eritrea-and-ethiopia/ |
| 2002 - 2019 | Ghana | Risk of a Horizontal (non-state) Intrastate Conflict | Military intervention, the mediation of a peace agreement, legal prosecution, and local action. | The Government of Ghana and the Committee of Eminent Chiefs. | Lasting | A war between rival claimants to the throne of the Kingdom of Dagbon in Northern Ghana was prevented by a Ghanaian military intervention and the mediation of a peace agreement after sixteen years of talks | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-armed-conflict-in-ghana-kingdom-of-dagbonauto/ |
| 1999 - Present | Kosovo | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | A peacekeeping mission, a political mission, and a transitional international administration. | The EU, Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, and the UN. | Lasting | A North Atlantic Treaty Organisation peacekeeping force, a UN transitional administration, and a political mission from the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe have successfully helped to prevent a conflict relapse in Kosovo since 1999. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-a-conflict-relapse-in-kosovo/ |
| 2018 | Ethiopia | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict. | Mediation of a peace agreement. | The governments of Kenya, Dubai, Ethiopia, and Eritrea, and Conciliation Resources. | Lasting | The long-running armed conflict in the Somali Region of Ethiopia was ended by a peace agreement mediated with support from Conciliation Resources. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/ending-the-armed-conflict-in-ethiopia-somali-region/ |
| 1992 - Present | Molodva | Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict with Foreign Involvement. | A peacekeeping mission. | The Joint Control Commission, Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe/Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and the European Community/European Union. | Limited | The peacekeeping efforts of the Joint Control Commission and ongoing talks mediated by the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe has helped to prevent renewed conflict between the Government of Moldova and the administration of the breakaway republic in Transnistria. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/containing-the-armed-conflict-in-moldova-transnistria/ |
| 2003 - 2018 | Liberia | Risk of a Conflict Relapse | A peacekeeping mission. | The African Union, Economic Community of West African States, and UN. | Lasting | A series of peacekeeping operations helped to maintain stability in Liberia for fifteen years following the signing of the Accra Agreement, preventing a conflict relapse. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-conflict-relapse-in-liberia/ |
| 2000 - Present | The Great Lakes | Risk of a Conflict Relapse, Risk of a Vertical (state-based) Intrastate Conflict, Risk of an Interstate Conflict | Diplomacy and peace infrastructure | The International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR), the African Union, and the UN. | Lasting | After being established by the African Union and the UN, the ICGLR has prevented further interstate conflict in the Great Lakes since 2003. | https://bep.carterschool.gmu.edu/preventing-interstate-conflict-in-the-great-lakes/ |